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TIME: Almanac 1995
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<text id=94TT0291>
<link 94TO0152>
<title>
Mar. 14, 1994: The Neanderthal Mystery
</title>
<history>
TIME--The Weekly Newsmagazine--1994
Mar. 14, 1994 How Man Began
</history>
<article>
<source>Time Magazine</source>
<hdr>
COVER STORIES, Page 86
The Neanderthal Mystery
</hdr>
<body>
<p>By Leon Jaroff--Reported by Alice Park/New York, with other bureaus
</p>
<p> At first the German workmen thought they had found the remains
of an extinct cave bear. Quarrying for limestone on a summer
day in 1856, they had blasted open a small cave on the side
of a gorge called Neanderthal (Neander Valley), near Dusseldorf,
and were digging up the cave floor with pickaxes when they came
upon the strange skull and sturdy bones. Setting the skeletal
remains aside, they kept digging, never dreaming that their
discovery would soon spark confusion, dismay and heated debate
that has continued to this day.
</p>
<p> Those bones (and others since unearthed as far away as England
in the north, Uzbekistan to the east and Israel in the south)
are the remains of what have come to be known as the Neanderthals,
a primitive people who lived from around 200,000 to 27,000 years
ago. And while many misconceptions and mysteries about Neanderthals
have been resolved, one question remains unanswered: Were the
Neanderthals a branch on the evolutionary tree that withered
and died while Homo sapiens--modern human beings--continued
to evolve? Or were they really ancestors of at least some people
living today?
</p>
<p> At the time of the Neander Valley find, Charles Darwin had not
yet published his famous The Origin of Species, and evolution
was still, at best, only a hazy conjecture among a handful of
scientists. Indeed, most people then believed that human beings
had remained essentially unchanged since creation.
</p>
<p> Examining the skullcap, ribs, part of the pelvis and some limb
bones taken from the cave, Dr. William King, an Irish geologist,
suggested that the fossil might be an extinct form of humanity,
a different species. The skull, with its prominent brow ridge,
led him to declare that "thoughts and desires which once dwelt
within it never soared beyond those of a brute."
</p>
<p> But most scientists of the time disputed even the Neanderthal
man's antiquity. Rudolf Virchow, a respected German anatomist,
pronounced the caveman to be a modern Homo sapiens, whose deformations
were caused by rickets in childhood and arthritis later in life.
And his flattened skull? He had suffered powerful blows to the
head, Virchow opined.
</p>
<p> Virchow's views were widely accepted until 1886, when two more
Neanderthal skeletons were discovered in a cave in the Spy region
of Belgium. While Virchow claimed that these too were the remains
of diseased modern humans, other scientists regarded such a
coincidence as unlikely; they were more impressed by primitive
tools and the remnants of extinct animals found near the skeletons.
The Neanderthals, they agreed, were ancient. Still, they insisted
that, Darwin's controversial new theory notwithstanding, the
strange creatures could not possibly be ancestral to exalted
human beings like themselves.
</p>
<p> Then, in the early 1900s, large numbers of Neanderthal skeletons
were discovered, mainly in the Dordogne region of southern France.
With these specimens in hand, scientists felt that they could
better describe the physical appearance of a Neanderthal man,
and the task of reconstructing one fell to noted French paleontologist
Marcellin Boule.
</p>
<p> Apparently burdened by preconceptions and the prevailing bias
against the notion of Neanderthal ancestors, Boule concluded
that a Neanderthal had prehensile feet, could not fully extend
his legs, and thrust his head awkwardly forward because his
spine prevented him from standing upright. In his scientific
papers, Boule described the "brutish appearance of this muscular
and clumsy body." This almost simian image persisted largely
unchallenged for decades. Indeed, vestiges of it remain today
in such manifestations as textbook illustrations, the Alley
Oop cartoon strip, and in the pejorative use of "Neanderthal."
</p>
<p> But the image was wrong. In 1957 American and British researchers
re-examined the skeleton that Boule had studied and concluded
that Neanderthals stood upright; the stooped posture of Boule's
specimen was attributable to arthritis. Also the feet were not
prehensile, nor was the spine curved. They further noted that
the Neanderthal's brain was as large as that of early modern
humans, a fact that Boule ignored in his publications.
</p>
<p> In the past few decades, the perception of Neanderthals has
undergone still more changes. Evidence from various digs has
revealed that they wielded simple tools, wore body ornaments,
had religious rites and ceremoniously buried their dead.
</p>
<p> But for all the research into Neanderthals, the relationship
between them and modern humans is still a topic for hot debate.
Some textbooks classify Neanderthals as a subspecies within
Homo sapiens; others list a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis.
British paleontologist Christopher Stringer is convinced that
Neanderthals evolved in Europe from Homo erectus and suddenly
became extinct between 35,000 and 30,000 years ago, unable to
compete effectively with Homo sapiens originating in Africa.
"In my view," he says, "they are a dead end--highly evolved
in their own direction but not in the direction of modern humans."
</p>
<p> Among the experts who agree is Yoel Rak, an anatomist at Tel
Aviv University. He believes "Neanderthals have nothing to do
with our history." They may well have become extinct, he says,
because they were too highly specialized--probably well adapted
to survive the frigid temperatures of Ice Age Europe. But when
such conditions change, he notes, "the highly specialized creatures
are at a tremendous disadvantage."
</p>
<p> Other scientists say Neanderthal genes survive today. Milford
Wolpoff, an anthropologist at the University of Michigan, points
to Neanderthal features in early Europeans as evidence that
considerable interbreeding took place between Neanderthals and
Homo sapiens, who coexisted for tens of thousands of years in
some regions.
</p>
<p> Ofer Bar-Yosef, a Harvard University anthropologist, believes
the intermingling occurred when the advance of Ice Age glaciers
forced Neanderthals to move south into Homo sapiens' regions
and when retreating glaciers allowed early Homo sapiens to follow
Neanderthals back into northern climes. Still others, citing
anatomical changes in the most recent Neanderthals, think they
evolved independently into early Europeans.Wolpoff suggests
a Solomonic solution for resolving the Neanderthal debate: phrasing
the question correctly. "We can't be asking, `Are Neanderthals
the ancestors of humans?' " he says. "We should be asking, `Are
some Neanderthals ancestral to some Europeans?' And the answer
is yes."
</p>
</body>
</article>
</text>